Constructivism in Practice

               

             Constructionists believe that knowledge is actively constructed in the mind of the learner when they are actively engaged in creating an artifact that they can share (Orey, 2001). In a constructionist classroom, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than the giver of knowledge. The students learn by doing, using a hands-on approach to learning.  The classroom would be student centered where the teacher acts as a coach and motivator.  A constructionist classroom will utilize rubrics, dialogue, multiple strategies, inquiry, projects, and collaboration (Orey, 2001). These tools focus on what the student is learning rather than what the teacher is teaching. One strategy teachers can use to create a constructionist classroom is by utilizing project based learning.

                Project based learning; PBL is an instructional strategy that has students find solutions to problems in real world context (Orey, 2001). PBL is usually used in a collaborative learning environment where a group of students are trying to find a solution to the given problem. There is an emphasis on creating an artifact as part of the solution to the problem.  For PBL to work, students must feel that the work is relevant to them. The teacher must be available for students to help guide them and motivate them. The teacher cannot just give the solution to the students. There are three phases for PBL. During the first stage, students choose their project; during the second stage students create their artifact, and in the third stage students share their artifact (Orey, 2001).

                Generating and testing hypotheses, allows students to engage in complex mental processes, apply content knowledge, and enhance their understanding (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). This strategy is a form of problem solving which could be incorporated into PBL. Students could test their hypotheses and create an artifact of their conclusions. There are four processes for testing hypotheses; analysis, problem solving, inquiry, and investigation (Pitler et al, 2012). These processes are similar to the characteristics of constructionism. Technology is an important factor in generating and testing hypotheses. Graphic organizers are a useful tool in showing the relationships between factors.  Cacoo is a useful site that students and teachers can use to create graphic organizers, flow charts, and concept maps. 

                  A data collection tool that students could use is a microscope. A microscope can be used to see the pollution in water, count bacteria, observe living specimen, or check the health of an ecosystem. Students can use the data collected to help answer their problem. The internet is also a helpful tool for collecting data. Students can find other data collected by scientists all over the world and compare their results to what they found. Simulations allow students to test their hypotheses without the danger or ethical dilemma that may be created by their tests. There are many sites available for simulations for students and teachers to use. These sites also allow students to see the possible outcomes very quickly instead of over a long period of time.

                I plan to incorporate more PBL opportunities into my classroom next year. Due to a lack of available technology, it has been difficult to utilize computers as much as I would like to. Next year, my school will have six computer labs instead of just the two we have this year.  I want students to create concept maps and flow charts to show the relationships between the ideas they are learning about. Life science builds upon itself throughout the year. We start with the cell and build throughout the year until we end up with the human body. A concept map that they can refer to all year and add to it as we complete a unit will help students to see the big picture. I already have students test hypotheses but I need to create an activity that is more open ended and will allow students more freedom to find the answers. 

 Useful site for creating concept maps:

https://cacoo.com/getstarted/

Useful site for interactive simulations:

http://phet.colorado.edu/

References

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitive Learning in Practice

Cognitive learning theory involves the transformation of information into knowledge stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired or modified by experience (Learning domain, 2014). In other words, students learn when they can build upon prior knowledge.  Rote learning is when a student memorizes facts without understanding how the information fits together. When meaningful learning occurs, facts are stored together because they are related to each other (Learning domain, 2014). Meaningful learning occurs when students are actively engaged in their learning. A teacher becomes a guide to finding knowledge rather than the giver of knowledge. 

There are many instructional strategies that correlate to the principles of cognitive theory.  Cues, questions, and advance organizers focus on enhancing a student’s ability to retrieve, use, and organize information (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). Cues are visual or auditory hints a teacher gives a student to help them remember what they have already learned. For example, today we were reviewing the organs for the frog dissection tomorrow. Students were stuck on which organ was to be labeled in the diagram. I told the students remember the organ that we colored purple and glued on the small intestine of their paper frog. All the students then remembered that the organ was the spleen.  Asking questions allow teachers to direct students to what they know already and find out what they do not.  Advanced organizers are used to show relationships within the material. I often use graphic organizers and Venn diagrams in my class to show students the relationships between the material we are covering in class.  All three of these instructional strategies allow students to build upon their prior knowledge and modify what they know already to include the new material. These strategies can also motivate students to learn by sparking their interest. There are eight recommendations for classroom usage that a teacher needs to implement these strategies. They include the use of skimming, ask inferring questions, use explicit clues, and focus on what is important (Pitler et al, 2012). Without using these recommendations, cueing, questioning, and advanced organizers would fail to help students learn. They would just become yet another piece of busy work that would have no relevant meaning to the students.

                Another instructional strategy that demonstrates the principles of cognitive theory is summarizing and note taking. Summarizing and note taking enhance a student’s ability to combine information into a new form (Pitler et al, 2012). For summarizing, students need to be taught how to write a summary. Many students feel all the information is important and will write all of it down. They need to learn how to pull out the most important details from what they are reading to use to write the summary. In my class, we read and annotate articles on the topic we are studying in class. I teach the students using two colors of highlighters. The first color is used to highlight the main idea of the paragraph. The other color is used to highlight the details describing the main idea. Students then use the information they highlighted to write their objective summary. For note taking, give students a copy of the teacher’s notes, teach students different ways to take notes, and provide opportunities to revise and review their notes (Pitler et al, 2012). I give students cloze notes for the lectures I give. Students have to fill in the blanks with the relevant information. Students do not have to copy everything down but since they do have to write, they have to pay attention. I also have taught my students how to take Cornell notes. I always give students time to edit their notes, write their questions and summary. I also have students use their notes to complete another assignment.

                Virtual field trips give students and teachers an opportunity to go where they would not normally be able to go (Laureate Education Inc., 2011). Virtual field trips are web based activities that allow students to interact with material that may be found in another place or time. For example, students may visit a volcano, interact with dinosaurs, or travel to ancient Egypt. This utilizes cognitive theory because students are able to place the new information they learn and connect it to ideas that they already know. Students are actively participating in their trip by searching for the information they need to fins.  A virtual filed trip may use a concept map to fill in the information for the trip. Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge (Novak & Cañas, 2008).  It shows the relationship between concepts found on the map. To begin a concept map, there needs to be a central question; the big answer that students are trying to find. A concept map is like a food web or a flow diagram. Each part of the map fits together in a certain way. Concept maps can also be used as a brain storming strategy.

For more information on concept maps:

Inspiration Software

http://www.inspiration.com/visual-learning/concept-mapping

For more information on virtual field trips:

Tramline

http://www.virtualblackboard.com/vft/index.htm

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program six: Spotlight on technology: Virtual field trips [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Learning Domain. (n.d.).http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/. Retrieved May 20, 2014, from http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/BEduc/Ch

Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in Practice

Behaviorists believe that there are four key principles to learning. Activity is important, repetition and generalization, reinforcement is the cardinal motivator, and learning is helped when objectives are clear are the key principles (Smith, 1999). Students need constant opportunities to practice what they are learning and be active in their learning. Students need to clearly understand what it is that they’re expected to learn. Effort is the most important factor in achievement and reinforcing effort allows students to see the relationship between effort and achievement (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). Teachers can show students real data showing the relationship between the amount of time spent studying for an exam and the score the student received. This could be done with a simple survey online. This would allow students to see that there is a direct relationship between effort and achievement.

Providing recognition can have negative results if done incorrectly. It is important that teachers promote mastery, provide specific praise, and use concrete symbols (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). Praise needs to be focused on what the student is learning towards the mastery of an objective. For example, if a student was learning their multiplication facts and mastered half of the sevens, you would praise them for having reached the half-way point of their objective. Specific praise means do not just say good job, inform the student that they scored proficient on their math exam. To use concrete symbols, a teacher can put a smiley face sticker on their paper if they met the expectations of the assignment.

Homework and practice give students a chance to apply and review what was learned in class (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). Homework and practice allow students a chance for repetition, one of the key principles of behaviorism. It is important that teachers communicate their homework policy to students, design supportive homework, and provide feedback (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). In my class, I clearly state my homework policy to my students. Students are assigned weekly vocabulary homework that is due on Fridays. The vocabulary words are important terms students must know in order to succeed in their learning for the week.  

Practice needs to be purposeful, focused, and given feedback on (Pitler, Hubbell, & Kuhn, 2012). Practice works best when students are required to use multiple skills in order to complete the assignment. A good option for practice would be a formative assessment. A formative assessment allows the student and the teacher to see what the students have learned and what skills need to be taught again. Formative assessments are purposeful and allow teachers to give immediate feedback for students to use. Because formative assessments are not given a grade in the gradebook, students do not stress out as much and usually perform better.

Technology has allowed more opportunities for students to practice the required skills needed to be successful in a particular course. Behaviorist technologies such as skills tutor or Webmath are programs that allow students an opportunity for practice. These websites are leveled to students’ abilities. If a student needs help with their multiplication facts, they can practice those skills. Behavioral technologies apply all four key principles of behaviorism. Students are actively participating, repeating skills, getting reinforcement, and are given clear objectives (Smith, 1999).

For more information on behaviorism see:

Behaviorism vs. Constructivism in the Technological Secondary Education Classroom found at:

https://sites.google.com/a/boisestate.edu/edtechtheories/behaviorism-vs-constructivism-in-the-technological-secondary-education-classroom-1

Behaviorism and Games found at:

http://playwithlearning.com/2012/01/06/behaviourism-and-games/

References

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., & Kuhn, M. (2012). Using technology with classroom instruction that works (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://infed.org/mobi/the-behaviourist-orientation-to-learning/